Vedānta Darśana(Upanishads)

Of the six darśanas, or systems of philosophy, which recognize the authority of the Vedas, the last two, the Mīmāṅisā and Vedānta systems, are directly connected with them. The Mīmāṅsā system attempts to reconcile various Vedic texts that seem to give different instructions regarding the same ritual system. The Vedānta system tries to derive a coherent philosophy of Brahman from the seemingly contradictory statements in the Upaniṣads.

Preamble Sutras

According to the ancient education system, students have to live in the forest academy premises together with the teachers. The teachings imparted were in the form of sutras or aphorisms followed by explanations and discussions. When learning was to be crammed into memory, this method of teaching was considered paramount.

Sutra literature is in a class by itself. According to the norms laid down for the sutra, it should be “alpākṣara”, “asandigdha”, “sāravat” and yet “viśvatomukha”. However, in their effort to economize on words, the composers of the sutras seem to have gone overboard to such an extent that they became the necessary bhaṣyas or explanatory commentaries of later authors. The śrauta, gṛhya and dharmasutras form the oldest group of sutra literature. The Darśanas or philosophical systems of later times followed this sutra model because it served its purpose well.

Prasthānatraya

The Vedānta system deals with the Upaniṣads, which are the final parts of the Vedas and also contain their essence. The system is based on three canonical works:

1. The Upaniṣads
2. The Brahmasutras of Bādarāyaṇa
3. The Bhagavadgitā

The Upaniṣads are called ‘śruti-prasthāna’. The Brahmasutras are termed as ‘nyāya- prasthāna’. The Bhagavadgitā is renowned as ‘smṛti-prasthāna’. All these three scriptures are commonly known as ‘prasthānatraya’. ‘Prasthāna’ means a school of philosophy or religion.

The Upanishads

Although a large number of works entitled ‘Upaniṣad’ are available in print today, the orthodox tradition accepts only a handful of them, twelve to fourteen, as ancient and authoritative. The entire edifice of the Vedānta philosophical system depends on these few Upaniṣads. The teachings of these Upaniṣads can be classified as follows:

1. Brahman as the ultimate cause of this world
2. Nature of Brahman
3. The development of this world and its character
4. The nature of living beings as individual souls
5. Their relationship with Brahman
6. Their involvement in this world as well as theirs transmigration
7. The ultimate goal of life
8. Disciplines that help to achieve this goal

Significance of Commentaries on Upaniṣad

This brings us to the next point, the various Upaniṣadic sayings which form the basis of the Brahmasutra philosophy. As some of these statements seemed to contradict each other, Bādarāyaṇa had to undertake the unenviable task of bringing them together to form a homogeneous philosophy. Naturally, he chose the oldest of the Upaniṣads. Which are the Upaniṣads that Bādarāyaṇa talked about in these sutras? There is no direct indication in the sutras because they are too laconic. For this we have to depend almost entirely on the bhāṣyakāras or commentators, who fortunately are more or less unanimous in their decipherment.

In the first 31 adhikaraṇas, the main statements that constitute the viṣaya or viṣayavākya are from the following Upaniṣads, with the number of such sentences against them and the nature of the attainment of this ultimate goal. The Upaniṣads, as extant today, do not really provide a comprehensive picture of these various themes discussed in them. Since tradition and orthodoxy regard the entire body of the Upaniṣads as one canonical writing, the Śruti, it was necessary to reinterpret and reorganize their teachings to give them a more coherent appearance. This is exactly what Bādarāyaṇa attempted, and the result was the Brahmasutras.

The Brahmasutras

Origin of the Brahmasutras

The work derives its name from the fact that it deals primarily with Brahman[11] as described in the Upaniṣads in all its aspects. It is also known by other names as follows:

1. Vedānta-sutras because the subject matter is the subject of Vedānta or Upaniṣad
2. Sāriraka-sutras because the ātman living in the śarīra or body is engaged in work
3. Uttara-mimānsā-sutras as opposed to Purva-mīmānsāsuter because it makes a mimānsa or inquiry into the uttara or last part of the Vedas
4. Bhikṣu-sutras, because they are specially recommended for study by bhikṣus or sanyāsins

Bādarāyana, the Author

Nothing is known about Bādarāyaṇa, the author of this famous work. Traditionalists identify him with Vyāsa, who may have been his contemporary. Although his views differed from theirs, he did not criticize their views, probably because they were also renowned Vedāntins who recognized the Upaniṣads as the primary authority and Brahman as the ultimate truth.

About the Work

The work Brahmasutras consists of four adhyayas or chapters. Each adhyāya is divided into four pādas or quarters. The pādas comprise adhikaraṇas or topics, each of which consists of sutras. The total number of adhikaraṇas and sutras, according to Śaṅkara, the oldest commentator, is 191 and 555. However, there are variations in this number and also in the values ​​themselves.

Splitting one sutra into two, merging two sutras into one, or adding the last word of a sutra to the beginning of another are some of the reasons for such variations in readings. Such changes in the structure of the sutras have also contributed to divergent interpretations. Not only this, different opinions also arose as a result of one school considering a certain sutra to be a purvapakṣa statement and another school accepting the same sutra as a siddhānta.

Parts of Adhikaraṇas

As already stated, each pāda of the various adhyāyas, comprises several adhikaraṇas or topics. An adhikaraṇa must have five parts connected in a graded manner. They are:

1. Viṣaya or topic
2. Viśaya or sanśaya, doubt
3. Purvapakṣa or opponent’s view
4. Siddhānta or established conclusion
5. Saṅgati or connection between the different sections

Determining Factors for Numbers of Sutras

The number of sutras in any adhikaraṇa depends on the nature of the topic under discussion. It is determined by ambiguity in the sutras, the names and number of adhikaraṇas vary from commentator to commentator. While Nimbārka has the minimum number of adhikaraṇas, Madhva has the maximum.

Contents of Brahmasutras

The work Brahmasutras, true to its name, deals primarily with Brahman as the supreme truth, the only independent truth, by the realization of which man transcends transmigratory existence. The only authority for the existence of Brahman and also for its true nature is the Śruti, the jñānakāṇḍa part[19] of the Vedas containing the Upaniṣads. This knowledge of Brahman can never be gained by logic and reasoning which depends on the petty human intellect. Since the intellect depends on the knowledge acquired by the senses, and since Brahman, pure consciousness, is beyond the reach of the senses, Śruti as revealed to the ṛṣis is the only source of its knowledge.

This brings us to the next point of the various Upaniṣadic statements forming the basis of the Brahmasutra philosophy. As some of these statements seemed to contradict each other, Bādarāyaṇa had to undertake the unenviable task of bringing them together to form a homogeneous philosophy. Naturally, he chose the oldest of the Upaniṣads. There is no direct indication of these ancient Upaniṣads in the sutras because they are too laconic. This can be completely deciphered through the bhāṣyakārs or commentators who, fortunately for us, are more or less unanimous in deciphering the same.

Vedic Sources of the upanishads

1. Aiterya Upanishad

2. Brahadaranyaka Upanishad

3. Chandogya Upanishad

4. Isavasya Upanishad

5. Katha Upanishad

6. Kena Upanishad

7. Mandukya Upanishad

8. Mundaka Upanishad

9. Svetasvatara Upanishad

10. Taittirya Upanishad